Argumentation is a fundamental activity of scientists. It is great if the argument can be deductive and even better if it can be sound.
The goal is to get a good enough background to be able to write sound arguments. At this point in your science understanding it may be necessary to assume that the premises are true and support them using experts in the field. Scientists on the cutting edge of research are in a similar situation in that they may have to propose premises that will hopefully be supported by later experimentation. In this class we will use well established principles and can usually get to a point where there is general agreement.
Indeed, we can build arguments that most informed people would agree with by supporting the premises in our basic argument. It may be necessary to support the new premises as well, but at some point our support will be well known and commonly accepted. Since this course will require papers that are developed in this way, the following examples will be provided.
Let's start by converting the argument that was developed on the last page into a paper. The title will be the conclusion of the main argument. The first paragraph will be the main argument. The body of the paper will be support for the premises of the main argument and further support for other premises as needed. The last paragraph summarizes what has been done, repeating the argument of the first paragraph and culminating in the overall conclusion of the essay.
If A Bicycle Tire Is Fully Pumped Up, Then The Tire Will Feel Hard
If a bicycle tire is fully pumped up, then the tire pressure is high. If the tire pressure is high, then the tire will feel hard. Therefore, if a bicycle tire is fully pumped up, then the tire will feel hard.
If a bicycle tire is fully pumped up, then there has been a lot of air placed into a small volume. If there has been a lot of air placed in a small volume, then the tire pressure is high. If a bicycle tire is fully pumped up, then the tire pressure is high.
If the tire pressure is high, then it has a lot of air in a small volume. If a tire has a lot of air in a small volume, then the air is constantly pushing against the inside of the tire. If the air is constantly pushing against the inside of the tire, then the tire will resist inward forces. If the tire pressure is high, then the tire will resist inward forces.
If the tire pressure is high, then the tire will resist inward forces. If the tire resists inward forces, then the tire will feel hard. If the tire pressure is high, then the tire will feel hard.
This paper has supported the thesis that when a bicycle tire is fully pumped up the tire will feel hard. If a bicycle tire is fully pumped up, then the tire pressure is high. If the tire pressure is high, then the tire will feel hard. Therefore, if a bicycle tire is fully pumped up, then the tire will feel hard.
The motivation for the paper just completed may have been an observation while you were pumping up your bicycle tires one day. Here is another example.
Suppose that you observe that telephone lines sag less in the winter and more in the summer. You might ask "Why do telephone lines sag less in the winter and more in the summer?" The assignment associated with such a question would be to write an argument that has the conclusion: "Telephone lines sag less in the winter and more in the summer."
Begin by listing possible reasons for the observation and deciding on the reason that can best be supported. In this case it seems likely that the observation is connected to the difference in temperature and the generally held idea that cold things contract and hot things expand. If there are known exceptions (water expands when it freezes) they may need to be addressed in some part of the argument, but only do so if necessary.
The basic argument might be:
P1: If wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures then telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer.
P2: Wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures.
C: Telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer.
An argument for P1 might be
P1a: If wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures, then wire connected between poles will sag less in the winter and more in the summer.
P1b: If wire connected between poles will sag less in the winter and more in the summer, then telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer.
NBP/IC (P1): If wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures, then telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer.
An argument for P2 might be
P2a: If metals contract at low temperatures and expand at high temperatures and wires are made out of metals then wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures.
P2b: Experiments show that metals do contract at low temperatures and expand at high temperatures and wires are made out of metals.
NBP/IC (P2): Wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures.
A paper can now be constructed by using the main argument as the basis for the first paragraph, the argument supporting P1 as the basis for the second paragraph, the argument for P2 as the basis for the third paragraph and then writing a concluding paragraph saying what was done. Here is an example of what the paper might look like. Notice that the title is the overall conclusion.
Telephone Lines Will Sag Less in the Winter and More in the Summer
Over the years I have observed that telephone lines seem to sag differently during different times of the year. I would like to make the following argument showing that telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer. If wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures then telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer. Wire does contract at low temperatures and expand at high temperatures. Telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer.
If wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures, then wire connected between poles will sag less in the winter and more in the summer. If wire connected between poles will sag less in the winter and more in the summer, then telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer. If wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures, then telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer. Telephone lines are predominantly made of wire and do exhibit the properties of wires. In addition, the telephone line will sag less when it is shorter (when the line has contracted) and more when it is longer (when the line has expanded).
If metals contract at low temperatures and expand at high temperatures, and wires are made out of metals, then wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures. Experiments show that metals do contract at low temperatures and expand at high temperatures. Also, wires (including those in telephone lines) are made out of metals. So, wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures.
Since it has been shown that if wire contracts at low temperatures and expands at high temperatures then telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer (P1) and that wire does contract at low temperatures and expand at high temperatures (P2), we must conclude that telephone lines will sag less in the winter and more in the summer (C).
Note that explanations and extra information has been kept to a minimum. It may be necessary to write paragraphs to further support one of the main premises or to support one of the secondary premises. The support must get to a level where everyone would agree that the premises are true. It is, in any case, always good advice to keep the paper as simple as possible. Also note that I have included some emphasis in the last paragraph (underlining and premise identification) that would not normally be part of the paper. You should not place this emphasis in your papers.
I have written three more example papers. The first one is an example of a simple paper that you can use as a bare-bones model for Homework #5 and Paper #1. The second one combines the different forms that have been presented and provides an example of how to argue against a theory. The third one is a previous assignment and is just an earlier draft of the tire pressure paper.
Note that there are two formats to keep track of:
One is the format of the main argument. The main argument should be a conditional argument of the "If A, then B. Affirm A. Conclude B." variety. The first paragraph should have an argument in that format included in it.
The second format is the format of the whole paper. That consists of a simple conditional argument in the first paragraph. Support for the first (conditional) premise in the second paragraph, support for the second premise in the next paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph that restates the original simple conditional argument. If you look at all of the examples you should see this format illustrated. Some students initially think that the format is repetitive, but keep in mind that the support for the first premise is to establish connections between observations and theories while the support for the second premise generally is concerned with providing data or establishing scientific principles.
Example Paper #1
Example Paper #2
Example Paper #3
Example Paper #4
You can now do Homework #5 and Paper #1.